Yuav ua li cas Mendeleev, nws cov phooj ywg thiab tshem tawm ntawm serfdom muab Russia ntau tus poj niam kws tshawb fawb

2024 Tus sau: Richard Flannagan | [email protected]. Kawg hloov kho: 2023-12-16 00:06

Cov kws tshawb fawb txog kev kawm qib siab rau poj niam tsis muaj kev pom zoo hauv lawv cov lus xaus: txoj hauv kev dav rau cov poj niam hauv ntiaj teb tau nthuav dav hauv thaj chaw no los ntawm cov poj niam hluas los ntawm tebchaws Russia. Lawv tuaj rau European cov tsev kawm qib siab kom npaj tau zoo uas ntau tus xibfwb pom tias nws ruam tsis cia lawv kawm tiav. Tab sis leej twg tau qhia cov ntxhais nyob rau lub sijhawm thaum nyob hauv Russia nws tus kheej lawv tseem tsis tau lees paub hauv cov tsev kawm qib siab?

Clandestine cov tsev kawm ntawv hauv tebchaws Poland

Hauv tebchaws Poland, uas nyob rau xyoo pua puas yog ib feem ntawm Lavxias teb sab faj tim teb chaws, tau teeb tsa lub network tiag tiag ntawm cov tsev kawm ntawv tsis tseeb. Muaj pes tsawg tus kws qhia ntawv hauv nws tau hlub cov kwv tij thiab cov txheeb ze ntawm cov tub ntxhais kawm, thiab qee tus kws qhia ntawv tau qhia tus kheej rau cov ntxhais hluas uas tswj kom kov yeej qhov no lossis qhov kev tshawb fawb los ntawm phau ntawv. Thawj cov kws tshaj lij tsis raug cai tau qhia rau nag hmo cov tub ntxhais kawm theem siab, npaj lawv yam tsis tau poob rau cov tsev kawm qib siab zoo tshaj plaws nyob hauv Europe - thiab cov tub ntxhais kawm tau kawm tshiab, ua ntej tawm mus, pab npaj lwm tus ntxhais. Nws tau kawm hauv tsev kawm ntawv hauv av, piv txwv li, Maria Sklodowska, uas tom qab ntawd muaj koob npe los ntawm nws tus txiv - Curie.

Txawm hais tias peb tab tom tham txog tsev kawm ntawv thiab kev npaj rau tsev kawm qib siab, qhov tseeb, txoj haujlwm ntawm thawj xyoo lossis xyoo ob tau dhau mus rau ntawd, yog li thaum nkag mus nws tsis tuaj yeem ua rau tus neeg thov ua siab ncaj lossis yog li nws tuaj yeem kawm tiav tsev kawm ntawv sai li sai tau ua tau, raws li tus tub ntxhais kawm sab nrauv - lub neej thiab kawm txawv teb chaws tau txaus siab heev. Peb lub tsev kawm qib siab tsis pub leej twg paub, uas tau npaj kom tau txais daim ntawv pov thawj txawv teb chaws, tau raug hu ua "The Flying University".

Sab nrauv, ua tsaug rau kev npaj tau zoo, cov tsev kawm qib siab tau hla dhau, tsis yog cov tub ntxhais kawm ntawm cov tsev kawm ntawv Polish xwb. Qhov no tau ua tiav, piv txwv li, los ntawm Nadezhda Suslova, thawj tus kws kho mob poj niam Lavxias. Thaum nws yog ib tug ntxhais, nws tau thov kev tso cai los koom kev qhuab qhia ntawm Medical-Surgical Academy hauv St. Petersburg. Tsis yog txhua tus kws tshaj lij tau npaj pom tus ntxhais ntawm lawv cov lus qhuab qhia, tab sis cov kws kho mob nto moo Ivan Sechenov, Sergey Botkin thiab Ventslav Grubber, nco txog dab tsi Pirogov hais txog poj niam hauv tshuaj (thiab Pirogov, raws li koj paub, teeb tsa kev qhia thiab kev pabcuam ntawm cov viv ncaus ntawm kev hlub tshua thaum Tsov Rog Crimean), tsis tsuas yog tso cai Suslova rau lawv cov chav kawm, tab sis ib txwm npaj los piav qhia qhov chaw tsis meej rau nws.

Nws yog vim qhov xwm txheej ua ntej nrog peb tus kws tshaj lij no uas Ministry of Education tau ua qhov kev xaiv tsa xyoo 1863: puas yog poj niam tuaj yeem tau txais kev kawm qib siab thiab daim ntawv pov thawj tau txais nws? Tsuas yog ob lub tsev kawm qib siab, Kiev thiab Kharkov, tau teb zoo (Ukraine kuj yog ib feem ntawm Lavxias teb sab faj tim teb chaws lub sijhawm ntawd). Tus so ntawm cov tsev kawm qib siab loj tau txawv qib sib txawv, txawm hais tias, raws li nws tau muab tawm tom qab, muaj kev vam meej nyob ntawd ib yam.

Rov qab mus rau cov tsev kawm ntawv hauv av - thaum nyob hauv Russia thaum kawg nws tau tso cai qhib cov chav kawm siab hauv ntau lub nroog, ntawm txhua tus kws tshaj lij uas tuaj yeem pab dawb qhib cov chav kawm no hauv lawv lub nroog, lawv nruj me ntsis tsis kam lees rau Warsaw thiab Kharkov - feem ntau ntawm txhua qhov, hauv lub ntsej muag ntawm cov tub ntxhais kawm poj niam, tsoomfwv Lavxias ntshai cov neeg ua phem- sib cais thiab pom tseeb, hauv ob lub nroog no, cov ntxhais hauv lawv txoj kev xav zoo li tshwj xeeb. Vim li ntawd, Tebchaws Poland cov tsev kawm ntawv hauv av hauv Warsaw tau loj hlob mus rau cov kws qhia ntawv hauv tsev kawm qib siab, nrog rau cov kawm tiav thiab kawm tiav qib siab uas twb tau ua haujlwm nyob ntawd.

Bestuzhevka thiab tag nrho-tag nrho-tag nrho

Thaum twg, thaum kawg, cov chav kawm siab dua rau cov poj niam raug tso cai thiab tau txais hauv ntau lub nroog sib txawv - hauv St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Tomsk - lawv tam sim ntawd tau coj tsis yog tsuas yog hauv poj niam txoj kev kawm feem ntau, tab sis kuj ntawm lwm yam tsev kawm qib siab, tau mus qhia tus luminaries tiag. Txij li cov ntxhais tau tso cai kawm, los ntawm tsoomfwv txoj cai lij choj, tsuas yog them tus nqi, thiab cov kws tshaj lij kuj tau txais nyiaj hli, ib tus tuaj yeem xav tias yog tus luminaries ntawm kev txaus siab rau tus kheej, tab sis …

Hauv kev coj ua, tus kws qhia ntawv tau txais txiaj ntsig zoo li cas hauv cov poj niam txoj kev kawm, lawv, paub tias, tsis zoo li cov tub ntxhais hluas feem ntau, cov ntxhais no tsis tau txais kev txhawb nqa los ntawm leej twg, tias lawv feem ntau tuaj rau thaj chaw deb, uas yog qhov zoo tshaj plaws lawv noj hmo (tsuas yog noj mov!) rau ntau yam muaj tshuaj yej thiab ib khob cij - lawv tau muab lawv cov nyiaj hli los ntawm cov poj niam cov chav rau kev yuav khoom ntawm cov ntaub ntawv kawm, lub koom haum ntawm chav noj mov pheej yig, nyiaj pub dawb rau cov neeg txom nyem tshaj plaws thiab muaj peev xwm kawm ntawv, txawm tias lawv kho. Cov neeg pub dawb tshaj plaws yog, kuv yuav tsum hais, cov xibfwb hauv Kazan. Thiab lawv tau qhia cov ntxhais, ib yam nkaus, tsis saib tsis taus. Ntau tus neeg kawm tiav ntawm poj niam txoj kev kawm, pib nrog nto moo Bestuzhevsky, tom qab ntawd nkag mus rau keeb kwm ntawm kev tshawb fawb.

Cov kws qhia ntawv no yog leej twg, nws lub npe yuav tsum tau sau ua cov ntawv kub hauv keeb kwm ntawm kev kawm? Peb txhua tus paub lawv los ntawm keeb kwm ntawm kev tshawb fawb. Chemist Dmitry Mendeleev. Physiologist Ivan Sechenov. Paj Huam Inokenty Annensky. Hluas ces linguist Lev Shcherba. Physicist Peter Fan der Fleet. Keeb kwm Vladimir Ger'e. Mycologist Nikolay Sorokin. Ethnographer Nikolai Firsov. Keeb kwm Nikolai Osokin. Hauv cov chav kawm qhia los ntawm cov kws tshawb fawb tseem ceeb no, cov ntxhais kawm paub ntau yam txuj ci tseem ceeb thiab tom qab ntawd tau mus rau cov kws tshawb fawb txog geologist, kws kho mob lub cev, kws tshuaj, kws kho mob, kws saib hnub qub, thiab kws sau paj huam.

Tab sis hauv Finland (uas nyob rau lub sijhawm ntawd tseem yog ib feem ntawm lub tebchaws) lawv tau yooj yim dua: tsis txhob teeb tsa cov chav sib cais rau poj niam, lawv tau nkag mus rau Imperial Alexander (Helsingfors) University, raws nraim li lawv tau ua tiav los ntawm lub sijhawm ntawd (ua tsaug rau kev nyuaj siab ntawm cov tub ntxhais kawm Lavxias) hauv lwm lub tsev kawm qib siab hauv Europe. Txawm li cas los xij, lub sijhawm ntawd, lub tsev kawm ntawv tsis zoo li yuav ci rau hauv ib yam tshwj xeeb, yog li tsis muaj cov menyuam ntxhais hluas nyob ntawm nws. Yog tias ntau pua tus ntxhais kawm hauv poj niam lub tsev kawm qib siab, ntawm no - ob peb tus ntxhais. Lossis cov tub ntxhais hluas ntshai tub ntxhais kawm ntawv.

Nyiaj lus nug

Qhov teeb meem nrog cov kev kawm tiav yog tias txawm tias nyob hauv cov ntxhais zoo tshaj plaws hauv tsev kawm ntawv, qhov xwm txheej nrog kev kawm ntawm cov ncauj lus tseem ceeb tau poob siab. Konstantin Ushinsky tau ua ntau yam los tsoo nws. Nws tsis txaus siab qhov tseeb tias cov ntxhais tau ua noj lossis ua khoom noj khoom haus hauv tsev lossis taug kev cov tais diav hauv tsev, tsis quav ntsej lawv lub siab thiab tus yam ntxwv. Muaj tseeb, nws tus kheej kuj ntseeg tus poj niam txoj hmoo, tsuas yog nws ua rau nws muaj kev hlub ntau dua: lawv hais tias, txhua txoj kev tshawb fawb thiab txhua txoj kev kawm yuav tsum pib nrog tus kws qhia poj niam. Leej twg zoo dua li poj niam tuaj yeem qhia menyuam? Txawm li cas los xij, rau nws lub sijhawm no tseem yog lub tswv yim kev tawm tsam: tom qab tag nrho, nws tau ntseeg tias tus poj niam feem ntau tsis tuaj yeem qhia menyuam yaus, tsuas yog saib xyuas lawv.

Tau kawg, cov poj niam feem ntau txhawj xeeb txog poj niam txoj kev kawm - txiv neej tau teeb tsa nws tsuas yog vim lub sijhawm ntawd tsuas yog lawv muaj qib tsim nyog ntawm kev paub txog kev tshawb fawb, koom nrog cov txheej txheem. Ntawm cov kws tshaj lij ntawm kev kawm qib siab yog Evgenia Konradi, tus kws sau ntawv thiab txhais lus, uas tau teeb tsa qhov teeb meem ntawm kev qhib chav kawm rau poj niam nyob qhov twg los xij.

Thaum lub Tsib Hlis xyoo 1868, tus xibfwb ntawm St. Petersburg University Karl Kessler tau txais daim ntawv thov los ntawm 400 tus poj niam nrog thov kom npaj "qhuab qhia lossis kawm rau cov poj niam." Txog ib puas ntawm cov poj niam no yog cov neeg siab tshaj plaws hauv lub voj voog, thiab cov neeg tawm tsam tseem ceeb, ntxiv rau Konradi, cov neeg paub zoo hauv lub sijhawm ntawd Nadezhda Stasova, Maria Trubnikova thiab Anna Filosofova. Lawv coj tus kws tshuaj Nikolai Beketov ua lawv cov phoojywg.

Thaum tsoomfwv tau txiav txim siab tias yuav lees cov poj niam mus rau kev tshawb fawb, cov tub ntxhais kawm, cov tub ntxhais kawm tiav thiab cov kws qhia ntawv hauv tsev tau qhuab qhia hauv rooj sib tham hauv tsev - tsis zoo li cov tub rog, tab sis tsis muaj kev mob siab rau, uas tom qab tau rov qab los ntawm cov tub ntxhais kawm nto moo ntawm Ushinsky Vodovozov. Yog li, Hnub Sunday, tus kws qhia ncaws pob, tus phooj ywg qub ntawm Mendeleev, Kraevich, nyeem physics rau cov ntxhais thiab poj niam. Mendeleev nws tus kheej tau koom nrog cov ntxhais txawm tias ua ntej qhib chav kawm.

Nws yuav tsum tau hais tias muaj kev lag luam thiab keeb kwm hauv qab qhov kev txiav txim siab ntawm cov tub ntxhais kawm Lavxias uas tau ua rau lub zog ruaj khov ntawm kev paub. Keeb kwm, hauv tebchaws Russia, tus poj niam feem ntau muaj cai ntau dua nyob hauv ntau lub tebchaws Catholic - piv txwv li, nws cov nuj nqis tseem yog nws li khoom txawm tias tom qab sib yuav, thiab txawm tias tus poj niam yawg kawg mus rau tom tsev hais plaub, pom tias nws tus txiv tau siv haus cawv lossis ua kom puas tsuaj. Qhov no txawm tias qhov tseeb tias tus poj niam Lavxias teb sab tau ua siab ntev tiv qhov kev raug mob hnyav tshaj plaws thiab poob ntsej muag! Cov nuj nqis raug txiav txim siab yog ib yam uas ua tsis tau.

Kev lag luam, cuam tshuam nrog kev tshem tawm kev ua phem rau xyoo 1861, ntau tus ntxhais thiab poj niam pom lawv tus kheej hauv qhov xwm txheej uas lawv raug tshem tawm los ntawm lawv cov txheeb ze nyob deb uas tau txhawb nqa lawv yav dhau los, lossis kev koom tes ntawm txhua tus tswvcuab laus tau xav kom txhawb nqa tsev neeg. Cov ntxhais mus rau hauv nroog kom tau txais txiaj ntsig zoo los ntawm lawv keeb kwm (piv txwv li, lawv tau pib hloov pauv ntau tus neeg ua haujlwm hauv cov khoom lag luam zoo nkauj thiab cov khw loj) thiab koom nrog cov hluas ib puag ncig, qhov teeb meem ntawm poj niam txoj cai, suav nrog kev kawm, tau sib tham tas li.

Qee tus ntxhais mus tam sim rau kev kawm, thiab tsev neeg tsis cuam tshuam - lawv hais tias, tej zaum hauv nroog lawv yuav tsawg kawg pom tus txiv, menyuam kawm ntawv, tawm ntawm lawv niam lawv txiv caj dab. Qee tus ntxhais, ntawm qhov tsis sib xws, thawj zaug tau tawm tswv yim tsis tseeb rau cov tub ntxhais kawm txhawm rau kom khiav tawm ntawm lub tsev, uas tsis tau cog lus tias yuav ua neej nyob tsis tu ncua thiab hloov lub neej mus rau qhov muaj txiaj ntsig ntau dua. Lawv ob leeg yuav luag yuav luag los ntawm kos, tsuas yog Fab Kis thiab kev coj noj coj ua tom qab lawv, txhawm rau caum cov tub hluas uas tau ua tiav ntawm chav dhia ua si txhawm rau nkag mus rau ntiaj teb tshiab - ntiaj teb kev tshawb fawb astronomy, keeb kwm, lej, chemistry, tshuaj.. Thiab lawv tau ua nws.

Cov poj niam hluas uas tsis muaj kua qaub: Vim li cas Europe thiab Russia tau tshee hnyo los ntawm cov tub ntxhais kawm Lavxias nyob rau xyoo pua puv 19.